Ibrahim Kawala

Arabic instrumental refers to the largely non-vocal traditions of the Arab world that foreground the modal (maqām) system, cyclical rhythms (iqāʿāt), and finely shaded ornamentation. It centers on solo improvisations (taqsīm), chamber small-ensemble (takht) pieces, and composed instrumental forms such as samāʿī, bashraf, longa, dulāb, and tahmīla. Typical instruments include the oud (fretless lute), qanun (zither), nay (end-blown flute), violin adapted to Arabic intonation, riqq and darbuka (frame and goblet drums), along with bass and regional lutes (buzuq). While deeply rooted in 19th‑century Cairene, Syrian, Iraqi, and Ottoman-Arab court and urban music, the style has evolved to include orchestral film scores and modern jazz/electronic fusions—always retaining its maqām-based melodic grammar and heterophonic ensemble texture.